Charles Robert Darwins Life and Accomplishments - 2542 Words

Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist who was born in Shrewsbury, England on February 12, 1809. He was the second youngest of six children. Before Charles Darwin, there were many scientists throughout his family. His father, Dr. Robert Darwin, was a medical doctor, and his grandfather, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, was a well-known botanist. Darwin’s mother, Susannah Darwin, died when he was only eight years old. Darwin was a child that came from wealth and privilege and who loved to explore nature. In October 1825 at age sixteen, Darwin enrolled at Edinburgh University with his brother Erasmus. Two years later, Charles became a student at Christ’s College in Cambridge. His father wanted him to become a medical doctor, as he was, but since†¦show more content†¦Darwin believed all plants and animals had changed from past families by natural selection. An example of natural selection would be the different coloration between beetles (Understanding Evolution, 2008 ). There are two different colored beetles, one is brown and the other is green. Since the environment cannot have an overpopulation, the green beetles will get consumed by birds and not be able to survive and reproduce as much as the brown beetles. The brown beetles have offspring because the trait has a genetic basis. When they produce more offspring, they become more common in the environment and if this process continues, the population of beetles will be mostly brown. Certain characteristics are innate within a species which help them reproduce and survive more than other species with no such inborn characteristics. These species will become more favorable and most common in the population. Darwin’s theory of natural selection favors organisms that are prone to adapting well to the environment, it makes it easy to pass on their genes stabilizing the population and making it stronger. Species begin to die out according to, what Darwin calls, survival of the fittest. Darwin’s â€Å"Survival of the Fittest† theory is a natural process resulting in the development of a species best adapted to the environment. This is when the species only the species that are best adapted the environment and its conditions are able to survive and reproduce. If they are notShow MoreRelatedCharles Robert Darwin and his Revolutionary Ideas1111 Words   |  5 Pages Charles Robert Darwin was born on February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England. Charles was one of six children and came from a long line of scientists. His grandfather, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, created the theory of evolution and his father, Dr. Robert Waring Darwin, was a well known medical doctor in his community. When Charles was 16, in 1825, his father sent him to Edinburgh University to study medicine, in hopes that Charles would also become a medical doctor. However, three years into hisRead MoreCharles Darwin And Darwin s Theory Of Natural Selection1489 Words   |  6 Pagesubiqui tous phenomenon theorized by none other than Charles Darwin, a prestigious naturalist and biologist. This venerable man was able to unveil many revelations regarding variability through the development of his theory of natural selection (Darwin and Huxley xii). Having an inherent adoration toward nature as a young child likely provided a significant incentive. Though Darwin’s thesis is not immaculate by any standards he lived a successful life beyond this critical discovery and his legacy existsRead MoreThe Origin of Species1246 Words   |  5 Pagesof Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life was written by an English naturalist and geologist, Charles Darwin, and it overcame the scientific rejection that earlier similar theories had faced. Leading up to his publication during the Protestant Reformation Darwin went on a five-year-long voyage on the HMS Beagle as company to Captain Robert FitzRoy and kept a dairy of his experiences which would later be used as the bases of his book. TheRead MoreEssay on The Life and Theories of Charles Darwin1147 Words   |  5 PagesThe Life and Theories of Charles Darwin Charles Robert Darwin was the fifth child of Robert Waring Darwin and Susannah Wedgewood. He was born on February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, England where his father practiced medicine. He attended Shrewsbury Grammar School which was a well-kn own secondary school which concentrated on teaching classic languages. Even as a boy Darwin loved science and his enthusiasm for chemical studies earned him the name Gas from his friends. The headmasterRead MoreEssay about Charles Darwins Life and Revolutionary Work1293 Words   |  6 PagesCharles Darwin by far, revolutionized biology as known to modern society. He is responsible for the theory of evolution that people of today still go by. He was born on February 12, 1809 in England as the fifth child into the family of Dr. Robert and Susannah Darwin. He had three older sisters and one older brother. Because of his father’s success as a physician, and his mother coming from the Wedgewood family fortune, the Darwin family was considered well-off. Robert Darwin worked many great hoursRead MoreCharles Darwin s Theory Of Evolution And Natural Selection2114 Words   |  9 PagesCharles Darwin Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England, on February 12, 1809. He died on April 19, 1882 in Kent, England (Biography.com Editors). Charles Darwin brought many revolutionary visions to the world of science, including evolution. Charles Darwin was an English naturalist and geologist. He is best known for his theory of evolution, and natural selection. Darwin learned most of his information on the Voyage of the Beagle, and from this trip he wrote a book, Of the Origin of SpeciesRead MoreThe Theory Of Psychology And Psychology3461 Words   |  14 Pagesfuture I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history.† — Charles Darwin While psychology of today follows the discipline’s rich and varied history, the origins of psychology show incomparable differences from the modern understanding of the field. From the beginning, psychology has been tested and bombarded withRead More Organic Evolution Essay3270 Words   |  14 Pageslike animals, and we are animals. The many theories of evolution such as Darwins theory of evolution prove to us that we choose to believe that we are not animals when we really are. Evolution is the sequencial process of change over periods of time, which shapes and establishes the formation of modern man. In referring to evolution, the word means various changes. Evolution refers to the fabrication and development of life on earth. Organic evolution is the concept that all living beings evolvedRead MoreA Short History of Nearly Everything6112 Words   |  25 Pagesstate of science books used within his school.[2] [edit] Contents Bryson describes graphically and in laypersons terms the size of the universe, and that of atoms and subatomic particles. He then explores the history of geology and biology, and traces life from its first appearance to todays modern humans, placing emphasis on the development of the modern Homo sapiens. Furthermore, he discusses the possibility of the Earths being struck by a meteor, and reflects on human capabilities of spotting aRead MoreThe Rise and Fall of American Hegemony4258 Words   |  18 PagesSome Related Literature Table of contents ABSTRACT 1 MAIN PAPER I. INTRODUCTION 2 II. EMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW 3 III. DISCUSSION 7 IV. CONCLUSION 11 REFERENCES â€Æ' ABSTRACT Scholars like Johan Galtung, Robert Gilpin and Noam Chomsky greatly influenced the background ideas of this paper. Most of the cases the author argues come and are mostly based from the books of the said scholars. Galtung discusses most of the points that are crucial to this paper

Sociology as a Science Free Essays

More†¦ The case for sociology as a science * 1. The Case for Sociology as a Science 1. Introduction In this paper, I try to put forward several points in favor of sociology as a science. We will write a custom essay sample on Sociology as a Science or any similar topic only for you Order Now In the course of argument, I will also discuss the problems of † value free† sociology and scope of sociology. 2. What is science? To answer the question if sociology is a science or not, first we need to know what is science, otherwise the question does not make much sense. Actually current philosophical views on the nature of science are diverse, and largely liberalized from previous views. First, they no longer accept strong criteria of falsification as a scientific method. There are several ways to formulate falsification, but her e I mean something like this: scientific theories should make observable predictions and we should discard a theory if we find only one discrepancy between a prediction of the theory and an observation. Because even physics cannot meet such a strong criteria, now philosophers like Lakatos (1970) admit tolerance to such failure to some extent. Another new movement in philosophy is the attack on the universal laws. Cartwright (1983) argued that seemingly universal physical laws are not really universal, from logical point of view. This and other reasons (note1), Cartwright (1983) and Hacking (1983) presented a new view of science in which piecemeal â€Å"models†, instead of universal laws and theories, play the central role of scientific investigation . Here, â€Å"models† means oversimplified mental pictures of structure. For example, planetary model of atoms is long known as an oversimplification, but still it is widely used by chemists as a convenient way for thinking about chemical reactions. Feature Article –  Sociology Test I do not have enough space to give a definition of science, but these considerations will be enough to help our judgment on the status of sociology. 3. Is sociology a science? With the analysis of science in the previous section in mind, let us turn to sociology. Early sociologists tried to establish sociology as a science, and their arguments are mainly on the methodology of sociology. Comte claimed that sociology uses four different kinds of methodologies, namely observation, experiment, comparison and historical research as a special case of comparison (CST pp. 9-90, SCS pp. 42-54). These are the methodology used in several other scientific fields, especially in biology. So if his sociology had really followed these methods, it would have been a strong case for sociology as a science. But actually he never did empirical research (CST p. 110), so we cannot take his argument at the face value. But his argument influenced on other sociologists, especially Durkheim. For Durkheim, soci ology is a study o f social facts (CST p. 185). A social fact is † a thing that is external to, and coercive of, the actor† (ibid. emphasis original). Because they are external, social facts cannot be investigated by introspection (ibid. ). We should use empirical research. A typical use of this methodology is in his analysis of suicide (CST p. 195). Durkheim used statistics on suicide rate to establish his argument that suicide is a social phenomenon. He refused alternative hypotheses because their predictions did not agree with the actual statistical data. This is an admirable attempt of empirical research of society, but there are several problems. Durkheim applied too strict criteria of falsification to rival accounts. Adoption of these strict criteria is suicidal for sociology, because it is hard for a sociological theory to make a precise prediction, let alone to make a precise and correct prediction (and without this, the falsification criteria do not work). Another related problem is in his reject ion of introspection as a sociological method. This restricts the scope of sociology too narrowly, and in fact even Durkheim’s own study becomes impossible. For example, Durkheim’s definition of suicide is â€Å"any case of death ‘resulting directly of indirectly from a positive or negative act of an individual against himself, which he knows must produce this result'† (ED p. 32). But, without using introspection, how can we decide if ‘he knows’ the result or not, from external evidence only? I think that Weber’s methodology provides an answer to these problems. His key word in this point is â€Å"Verstehen,† a German word for â€Å"understanding† or â€Å"interpretation† (CST pp. 222 -224, FMW pp. 55-56). According to him, we can â€Å"understand† other people’s motivation through introspection of our own intentions, and this kind of knowledge is necessary for sociology. This is exactly what Durkheim denied as a method of sociology, but as we saw above even Durkheim himself used this â€Å"understanding† in his actual work. But, o f course, the problem is if this is permissible as a scientific method. Strong falsification of a theory is almost impossible by such â€Å"interpreted† facts, because if an interpreted fact runs counter to the theory we can just change the interpretation. But, as we saw in the last section, such strong falsification is given up by philosophers of science as too strict a criteria. Moreover, the arbitrariness of interpretation is not as great as one might worry. For example, Comte’s three stage theory (the detail of the theory does not matter here) has no follower today because there is no way we can reasonably interpret the evolution of society as obeying such a law. In this case we can say that Comte’s theory was falsified. As far as we have this minimal possibility of falsification, we can admit â€Å"Verstehen† as a scientific method of sociology, thus † interpretive† sociology as a science. Before we proceed to next section, I would like to make a brief remark on the use of models in sociology. One of the reason people may argue against sociology as a science is the lack of the sociological theory. We have Marx’s theory, Durkheim’s theory, Weber’s theory and so on, but none of them are shared by all sociologists. This seems to make a strong contrast with other fields of science where scientists agree on the basic theories. But, as we saw in the last section, some philosophers think that even in other scientific field what scientists are working on are piecemeal models, not a universal theory. And as f or such models, we can find abundant models shared by many sociologists. Actually, this is what Weber called â€Å"ideal types† (CST pp225-228). Ideal types are constructed through exaggerating some features of real cases. By comparing with ideal types we can find characteristics of each real case. These ideal types are useful conceptual tools for sociology just in the same sense as the planetary model of atoms is a useful conceptual tool for chemists. So, in this point, the difference between sociology and other scientific fields is not so great as it seems to be. 4. On â€Å"value free† sociology. To talk about â€Å"value free† sociology, I introduce a distinction made by philosophers recently (e. g. Laudan 1984). This is the distinction between â€Å"epistemic values† and non-epistemic values. Epistemic values are related to a special type of question â€Å"what should we accept as knowledge (or a fact)? Logical consistency, empirical adequacy, simplicity etc. are the criteria to answer such a question, and they ar e called epistemic values. On the other hand, other values are supposed to be used to answer the broader question â€Å"what should we do? † These are non-epistemic values. With this distinction, we will find that the claims of † value free† sociology made by ea rly sociologists were actually the claims for independence of epistemic values from other values in sociology (even though they are not conscious about this distinction). First, let us see the case of Spencer. Spencer distinguished several kind s of emotional biases, and claimed that we should exclude these biases from sociological research (CST pp. 124-125). None of these biases are epistemic value as characterized above. Moreover, the Spencer’s claim that we should exclude these biases is a value judgment, but this is an epistemic value judgment, and as far as this claim itself is not affected emotional biases, to apply such a value to sociology should be O. K. So Spencer’s argument agrees with my definition of â€Å"value free† sociology. The same argument applies to Weber. Weber says that teachers should not exploit the circumstances in a lecture room to imprint upon the students his personal political views (FMW pp. 146-147), because the task of teacher is to teach his students to recognize† facts that are inconvenient for their party opinions† (FMW p. 147). Again this is a value judgment, but epistemic one. Apparently sociology (or any other science) cannot be free from all values (because the ideal of â€Å"value free† sociology itself is a value), but at least it can be free from non-epistemic kinds of values, when we decide what is a fact and what is not. I guess even Marx can agree this notion of â€Å"value free† sociology to some extent. Of course in Marx’s theory the value judgment and the theory are inseparably related, but his actual arguments show that he distinguished these two things. For example, Marx criticizes Ricardo in â€Å"Theory of Surplus Value,† but the primary reason he criticizes Ricardo is not that Ricardo is capitalist, but that Ricardo’s conceptual scheme is insufficient because it cannot deal with certain cases (KM pp. 398-409). Thus the criteria for this judgment is pistemic values, not other kinds of value. I think that this way of argument gives Marx’s theory its persuasiveness. Of course I admit non-epistemic values and sociology have many interrelationships. For example, the choice of research topic is influenced the sociologist’s personal values, and sometimes a result of sociological research has immediate normative implications (e. g. Marx’s analysis on alienated labor; KM pp. 77-87). But still, I think, at the point of accepting something as a fact, we should be free from non-epistemic values. 5. On the scope of sociology Comte thought that sociology is the study of social statics (social structure) and social dynamics (social change) (CST p. 94). Durkheim thought that sociology should deal with social facts. Simmel claimed that â€Å"everything which was not science of external nature must be science of society† (SCS p. 29). Does any of them have the right answer? I don’t think that there is anything right or wrong on this topic, but my own preference is Simmel’s answer quoted here. I think that Comte’s and Durkheim’s answers tried to restrict the subject fie ld of sociology to establish sociology as a independent scientific field. But now no one would doubt sociology is an independent field (even though someone might object that it is not a â€Å"scientific† field). In this situation, such a conscious self restriction of subject matter is nothing but an obstacle to interdisciplinary cooperations with psychology and other neighbor fields. This is why I like Simmel’s answer. 6. Conclusion According to the liberalized philosophical view on science, there is nothing wrong with admitting Weber’s â€Å"Verstehen† and â€Å"ideal types† as scientific method, thus admitting sociology using these methods as a science. Recent distinction between epistemic and non-epistemic values makes the claim of â€Å"value free† sociology intelligible, and I think it is a reasonable position if taken in the sense I defined. I also briefly talked about the scope of sociology, and argued that we should not be restrictive on the subject matter of sociology. For example, even in physics, the scientists in closely related fields sometimes accept mutually inconsistent theories in each field and have no problem. This shows that How to cite Sociology as a Science, Essay examples

Master in Teaching Mathematical Terminology

Question: Discuss about theMaster in Teachingfor Mathematical Terminology. Answer: Part One Media Article 1: Description and Explanation of Mathematical Terminology The mathematical terminology used in the media article one is percentage. The article also used median mathematical tool. For example, in the article, it is indicated that median weekly asking rent in Melbournes for house hit four hundred dollars for a first time. The percentage is used where they yearly growth in rent for the houses, at 5.3 percent, outstripped units that surged 2.8%. The median unit rent remained steady at $370. Having acknowledged the use of both median and percentage as mathematical terminology in media article, we now turn into understanding what median and percentages are. Median Together with mean and mode, median is a kind of average. Median is one of the most common average in statistics. It is mostly encountered in the pre-statistics courses. The median describes the middle value in any given list of numbers. It is obtained by listing the numbers in the numerical order. Before obtaining the median, one must rewrite the list of numbers first. We can illustrate median using the following list of values. 21, 13, 13, 18, 14, 13, 14, 16, 13. To compute median for the above list of numbers, the first step is to rewrite the numbers in numerical order. This list then becomes13, 13, 13, 14, 16, 18, 21. Once the list has been rewritten, like in this case, we have nine numbers in the list. As it has been shown that median is the middle number. We get this by (9+1)/2=10/2=5th number. Therefore, the fifth number from the above list is 14 which then becomes the median. Median is significant in statistics since it is a representation of the center of a given set of data set. It can frequently provide two various stories regarding data particularly where the set of data entails outliers (extreme values). An outlier describes the statistical observation which is mathematically aloof from the other the data. It has the potential to skew the data mean, however, by means of the median, mathematicians can obtain an additional correct image of the true average or the central worth of a given data set. The median is used to measure the center of a numerical data set. An arithmetical median is such as the median of an interstate road. For example, on various roads, the median is the central and equivalent to the amount of lanes on either side of it. In the arithmetical data set, median gives the place at which there are an equivalent amount of data points whose values fall overhead as well as below the median value. Therefore, median is truthfully the central of the set of data. In case of a set of data with an odd number of the points, finding median will follow the above procedure by arranging the figures in order from the least to the biggest and then counting numbers The median shall become the one precisely in the mid, with an equivalent quantity of the numerous on each side of it. However, with an even amount of data points, one will obtain the median by calculating the median since no one number will fall in the center. In such a scenario, we begin by arranging the digits in ascending form and select the 2 mid figures provided as well as sum them up. We will eventually divide the result by 2 to get the median number. Percentage Percentage in mathematics means per 100 or for every 100 or out of 100. The symbol for percentage is (%). This symbol gives a quick way of writing a fraction with the denomination of 100. For example, in the above Media Article 1, the yearly growth in rent for houses, at 5.3% that surpassed units which surged 2.8%. This means that house rent grew 5.3 times for every 100 houses. The percentage can be expressed as decimals. This is done by moving the decimal part two places to the left. For example, 5.3% becomes o.053. In the same decimals can be expressed as percentage by moving the decimal point two places rightwards. Accordingly, 0.53 becomes 5.3%. The formula for calculating the percentage or for converting from the percentages remain relatively simple. For example, to convert a give fraction or decimal to percentage is done by multiplying by 100%. For example, 0.053, is converted to percentage by; 0.055*100=5.3%. A percentage can also be converted into a fraction by dividing by 100 and reducing the fraction as possible. For example 5.3%=5.3/100= 53/1000 However, there is a need to be wary of the common errors in the calculation of a percentage. As percentages are frequently thought of as parts of a larger whole item, there can be a tendency to divide instead of multiplying where one is faced with the problem like. Find 10% of 50. As the example below indicates, upon converting the percent to a decimal, the subsequent is to multiply, and not division. 50/0.1 =500 instead of 0.1*50=5 Understanding of percent enables the students to undertake effective estimation to check whether their solution is reasonable. In the example find 35% of 80, knowing that 35% is between one-quarter and one-half, would imply the solution needs to be somewhere between twenty and forty. Percentage is, therefore, in expressing growth or decline in a given phenomenon. Like in the media article 1, percentage has been used to showcase the growth in houses rent in Melbourne. Description of Major Conclusions The reasons for the surges were related to a number of factors. It is noted that with the December vacancy rates for the houses tightening from 1.8% to 1.7% over the month, tenants can anticipate more competition. Unit renters, nevertheless, have avoided the rise in price, with a vast volume of apartment constructions have kept the prices growth flat and vacancy rate high. Moreover, it is also due to the strong overseas as well as interstate migration besides enhanced Melbourne economy that creates more jobs leading to rising demand for the houses (Boseley, 2015). It was also concluded there was a reduced number of investors adding the rental stock due to the crackdown of Australian Prudential Regulation Authority on investor lending. It was also concluded that the increased demand for house in the east due to families wanting to reside in particular school zones. Moreover, this was also due to the investors who sold their properties after seeing the rates of interest surging and due to lower yields thereby decreasing supply. The landlords therefore can ask for increases in rent as there is a prospect for higher rents for the houses in Melbourne. The surges were also due to due to the tenants willing to pay six months rent upfront. The demand was fueled by individuals who had sold last years and hence they were looking to buy when the market cooled down. Whether Evidence is Convincing The evidence given in the article are convincing. This is because various industry experts have expressed the views based on analysis. Moreover, there are percentage increases shown in the Media Article 1. This demonstrates that they were drawn from real figures. Also, the study included such participants as tenants, landlords, regulators and property owners. The views of these groups have been effectively integrated in the analysis and this is convincing. Also, the factors given for the surges are real-world example. It is true that as people demand more of houses, with fixed supply of the same houses, the price will automatically increase due to economic forces of demand and supply. Nevertheless, there is a need to show the figures from which the percentage increases were drawn from. This additional information will make the information presented more convincing than it appears currently. This is because the source data from which the information is derive will make people easily compare past and the present more effectively than merely percentages and median used. Media Article 2: Description and Explanation of Mathematical Terminology As explained above in Media Article 1, Media Article used the mathematical terminologies like percentage. The percentage has been explained in the article one based on the meaning, how it is calculated and its important and hence the information in article one will serve this part. However, I will explain the specific use of percentage in Media Article 2. The report by the World Health Organizations International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that for every fifty gram (1.80-ounce) share of the meat that is processed consumed daily raised the colorectal cancers risk by eighteen percent. Description of Major Conclusions The first conclusion from Media Article 2 drawn from the IARCs research specialists is that for every fifty-gram (1.80-ounce) slice of the everyday consumed processed beef, the colorectal cancers risk increases by eighteen percent The study showed that the peril of developing cancer (colorectal) for a person remains small due to low consumption of the processed meat, but with the increase in the amount consumed, there is an increase the risk. The worldwide effect on incidence of cancer is of significance to the public health in understanding of the massive amount of individual who eat processed beef. Accordingly, the study ranked ham, bacon, and sausages together with cigarettes as chief causes of cancer thereby putting cure as well as processed beefs in one class as alcohol, tobacco, arsenic as well as asbestos. Whether Evidence is convincing The evidence presented in Media Article is convincing. This is because, the conclusion is drawn from the empirical evidence following the research undertaken by the WHOs IARC experts. Moreover, the findings are also supported by Doctors and Professor Time Key. Prof Key is renowned Cancer Research United Kingdoms epidemiologist in University of Oxford. He has supported the decision by IARC holding that there is sufficient and robust evidence to categorize processed beef as a cause of cancer while red beef categorized as likely cause of cancer. The Prof Key moves further to hold that it has long been known that there is a probable connection between red beef and processed beef and the cancer (bowel). Moreover, this knowledge is supported by considerable evidence. The research is supported by Doctor Kurt Straif who is the head of IARC monographs programme. This because the Dr. has shown effectively that the worldwide influence on cancer occurrence is a public health significance in view of huge amount of individuals who eat processed beef. The World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) has been advising individuals that processed beef is cancer peril. There is, therefore, sufficient evidence to categorize processed in same level as cigarettes. This is because the World Cancer Research Fund have shown that consuming products like ham, bacon, and salami should be in little amount less than 500 grams weekly to avoid cancer (ZhouJan, 2016). The decision also follows a year deliberations by international scientist moreover there is evidence that it will be welcomed by cancer researchers. This shows that the evidence given in the study is backed by effective investigation and this explains why it has taken the whole year. Nevertheless, there is a need for additional information to bring together all the stakeholders to accept the IACRs decision. This will give the decision a synergy that will help people embrace the decision and accept evidence-based health practices. There is a need for the IACRs to show that experimental and empirical study results so as to support their decisions. The WHO should also come undertake awareness campaigns focusing on the need to reduce the amount of processed meat consumed by the people. They should explain clearly whether there is a total ban on processed meat consumption or little amount being accepted since it seems people have not understand the implication of their decision to categorize processed meat in one category as cigarettes and red beef as likely cause of cancer. Part Two Completed Competency Test I have completed the numeracy test on written arithmetic and written data. I was tested in written questions being presented to me in a series of on-screen questions. I was able to use an on-screen calculator. The test specifically tested my ability to interpret and use written data. This test has helped have a comprehensive understanding of identifying trends correctly, making comparisons to draw conclusions, interpreting information accurately. The specific areas that I was tested included time, money, decimal, percentages, and fractions. The test also included such areas as ration and proportion, range, averages (mean, median and mode), using simple formulae and conversations. The test also included measurements like area and distance. Strength and Weaknesses The strength and weaknesses in this test are essential in enhancing my ability to identify numeracy opportunities across the curriculum. From the test, my strengths include correct identification of trends and effective comparisons to draw deductions. However, my weaknesses regards the interpretation of information accurately. Impacts of Strengths and Weakness By identifying trends correctly, I have an opportunity to identify the trends in the curriculums. This will help me know the effective ways of doing things including identifying me ability and areas that need improvement. The weakness I have, however, will not allow me to interpret the effects of these trends identified on my competency levels. This will impede my ability to solve my problems. My students will, therefore, have problems in applying whatever they have learned in school to real-world problems. This is because they will be able to identify their problems and opportunities around them but fail to interpret it correctly. In this, they will not have the right strategies to address their problems and explore their opportunities. Areas to Work On Some of the critical areas that I have decided to work on to improve the learning opportunities for my students include the interpretation and use of the written data. By working on this weaknesses, I will not only know how to interpret the data but also to use it correctly. In this case, I will be able to pass the knowledge effectively to my students who will then have the opportunities to apply whatever they have learned in class in real-life situation. In so doing, my students will be able to identify problems and opportunities across the curriculum and devise effective and relevant strategies to solve the problem by exploring the opportunities. I will, therefore, focus on such areas as percentages, conversions, proportions, decimals and measurement. The focus will to understand the meanings and uses of the mentioned areas. By understanding for example the meaning and uses of percentages, I will be able to know how to interpret the information presented as percentages. References Boseley, S. (2015). Processed meats rank alongside smoking as cancer causes WHO. The Guardian, 1-4. ZhouJan, C. (2016). Melbourne median house rent hits new high. The Age, 1-4.

Physics in Cricket Essay Example

Physics in Cricket Paper Cricket is not a game that most Americans know about, however, it is a popular sport in Australia and in other British parts of the world. This sport is not unlike any other sport in the area that it involves a great deal of physics. However, this paper will focus on the aspect of bowling the ball and the batters reaction to this. When comparing Cricket to other sports that most Americans know, the closest match that can be found is baseball. For example, a ball is thrown toward someone with a bat, and the person with the bat attempts to hit the ball outside of a set boundary. Also, the scoring system is cricket is based upon runs. Sounds very similar to baseball, right? Well, it is much like baseball, but the terminology used is different. For example, in baseball, the person who throws the ball is called a pitcher, but in cricket, this person is called a bowler. In contrast, the person who hits the ball with a bat is called a batter, however, a bat in cricket is much different than a bat in baseball. In baseball the bat is round, but in cricket the bat is shaped like a long paddle, meaning it is flat on two sides. We will write a custom essay sample on Physics in Cricket specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Physics in Cricket specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Physics in Cricket specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer First comes the batter when preparing for a game. A controversy that arises in both cricket and baseball alike is the question of â€Å"what size bat should be used? † The answer to this question is, whatever size allows you to put the most possible velocity while making the ball soar off at around a 45-degree angle. This depends on what bat a person is comfortable with. For example, a person might be able to swing a light bat at 45m/s but a heavier bat at 38m/s, therefore in theory the lighter bat would take a ball further because it has more velocity to transfer to the ball, right? Not quite, a heavier bat packs much more momentum and energy, so the force from that would make the ball go further, so the trick is actually swinging the heaviest bat that feels comfortable to swing, because when trying to hit the ball out of the field, this power comes in very handy. The bowler’s role is much different from the batter’s. The bowler’s objective is to get the ball past the batter and hit the wicket, the target that the batter is protecting. One way to approach this feat is to throw the ball as fast as possible without any spin past the batter in hopes that hey will miss and the ball will luckily hit the wicket, but this theory does not work all of the time. For this reason we have another approach, using spin. Since the bowler must bounce the ball, the bowler can make the ball switch directions, increase or even decrease in speed very quickly. While the first technique uses only two dimensions, this technique uses three dimensions. By adding spin to the left, the ball in result will kick to the left when bounced, and the same is true if spin were added to the right, it would kick right very sharply. To cause a ball to kick forward, topspin must be added to the ball, meaning, the ball will be spun in a forward direction. This causes the ball to dive toward the ground, then when it bounces, dive forward at a more reduced angle than what it entered, therefore the ball comes in closer to the ground. Backspin is added by, as you begin your bowl, spinning the ball backward as it is thrown. This causes a slight â€Å"glide† through the air, because of air resistance, and upon impact with the ground, the ball will bounce up at a lesser angle than without spin. Therefore, in contrast to topspin, if it hit the ground in the same place, a ball with backspin would get to the batter at a higher height than would a ball with no spin implied. Next, we have the angle at which the ball hits the ground. With no spin implied, the ball will project itself, or bounce, away from the ground at the same angle it entered. Even though the height at which the ball approaches the batter relies on speed, it also relies heavily on the angle of the bounce. In cricket, all bowlers have, depending upon height of the bowler, around the same place that the ball leaves their hand. Because of this, the angle at which the ball strikes the ground depends on how close or how far away the bowler aims for the ball to hit. If the bowler has measured out how far the place where he plans to bounce the ball, we can calculate the angle at which the ball will strike the ground, and then calculate at what height the ball approaches the batter. However, adding topspin or backspin to a ball defies this. As said earlier, topspin causes the ball to bounce at a lesser angle than normal, depending upon the rate of spin. And adding backspin causes the ball to bounce at a higher angle, also depending upon the rate of spin. In conclusion, physics is used in all sports, and why would cricket be any different? Even though cricket is a complicated sport with many weird rules and regulations, it still uses the same momentum, forces, gravity, and velocities, among many other physics concepts that the sports we know and love use. Particularly, physics is seen through the aspect of bowling the ball and the batter’s reaction to this. Citations MATHS AND PHYSICS OF CRICKET, ESPECIALLY SWING BOWLING . 10 Sep 2008. http://www. msstate. edu/org/mcc/newsinfo/physicsofbowling. pdf. Cross, Rod . The Physics of Cricket. The Physics of Cricket. 10 Sep 2008. http://www. physics. usyd. edu. au/~cross/cricket. html Cricket. Cricket – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 10 Sep 2008 http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Cricket .

Beside and Besides

Beside and Besides Beside and Besides Beside and Besides By Maeve Maddox Anwar wants to know the difference between beside and besides. Old English had the phrase be sidan, by the side of. OE side meant the flanks of a person, or the long part of anything. By 1200 the phrase was written as one word and used as both adverb and preposition. One meaning for beside in Middle English was outside. This is the sense in the expression to be beside oneself: He was beside himself with worry. He wasnt next to himself, he was outside himself. In modern usage beside is used chiefly as a preposition, while besides can be either a preposition or an adverb. The preposition beside means next to: Joans house stood beside the church. I like to sit beside my friend. As a preposition, besides means in addition to: Besides the administrators, the teachers were allowed to state their views. Besides the prize money, Charlie won a trip to the Bahamas. Besides often introduces a noun clause: Besides what you said, we must consider what she said. As an adverb, besides means in addition, as well as: There is enough for us and all our friends besides. Besides can introduce a further consideration: I dont think Ill attend the conference because it comes at an inconvenient time of year for me. Besides, I cant really afford it. Sometimes besides is a synonym for except or excluding: Besides him, everyone liked the idea. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:7 Classes and Types of Phrases25 Russian Words Used in English (and 25 More That Should Be)Wood vs. Wooden

How Chemical Hand Warmers Work

How Chemical Hand Warmers Work If your fingers are cold or your muscles ache, you can use chemical hand warmers to heat them up. There are two types of chemical hand warmer  products, both using exothermic (heat-producing) chemical reactions. Here is how they work. Key Takeaways: Chemical Hand Warmers Chemical hand warmers rely on exothermic chemical reactions to release heat.There are two main types of chemical hand warmers. One type releases heat by air activation. The other type releases heat when a supersaturated solution crystallizes.Air-activated hand warmers are single use products. Chemical solution hand warmers are re-usable. How Air Activated Hand Warmers Work Air-activated hand warmers are long-lasting chemical hand warmers that start working as soon as you unseal the packaging, exposing it to oxygen in​ the  air. The packets of chemicals produce heat from oxidizing iron into iron oxide (Fe2O3) or rust. Each packet contains iron,  cellulose (or sawdust to bulk up the product), water, vermiculite (serves as a water reservoir), activated carbon (distributes heat uniformly),  and salt (acts as a catalyst). This type of hand warmer produces heat anywhere from 1 to 10 hours. Its common to shake the packets to improve circulation, which speeds the reaction and increases the heat. Its possible to get a burn from direct contact between the hand warmer and skin, so the packaging warns users to put the product on the  outside a sock or glove and to keep the packets away from children, who could get burned more easily. Air-activated hand warmers cannot be re-used once they have stopped heating. How Chemical Solution Hand Warmers Work The other type of chemical hand warmer relies on crystallization of a supersaturated solution. The crystallization process releases heat. These hand warmers dont last as long (usually 20 minutes to 2 hours), but they are re-usable. The most common chemical inside this product  is a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate in water. The product is activated by flexing a small metal disk or strip, which acts as a nucleation surface for crystal growth. Usually, the metal is stainless steel.  As the sodium acetate crystallizes, heat is released (up to 130 degrees Fahrenheit). The product can be recharged by heating the pad in boiling  water, which dissolves the crystals back into the small amount of water. Once the package cools, it is ready to use again. Sodium acetate is a food-grade, non-toxic chemical, but other chemicals can be used. Some chemical hand warmers use supersaturated calcium nitrate, which is also safe. Other Types of Hand Warmers In addition to chemical hand warmers, you can get battery-operated hand warmers and also products that work by burning lighter fluid or charcoal inside special cases. All of the products are effective. Which you choose depends on the temperature you want, how long you need the heat to last, and whether you need to be able to re-charge the product. How to Make a Chemical Hand Warmer Its easy to make a DIY hand warmer using iron, salt, and water in a plastic bag. Materials Iron filingsSalt (sodium chloride)Warm (not hot) waterSand, sawdust, vermiculite, or sodium polyacrylate gelZip-top plastic bags Procedure In a small zip-top bag, mix 1-1/2 tablespoons iron filings, 1-1/1 tablespoons salt, 1-1/2 tablespoons sand (or other absorbent material), and 1-1/2 tablespoons warm water.Squeeze the air out of the plastic bag and seal it.Its a good idea to place the bag of chemical inside another bag, remove the excess air, and seal it.Shake or squeeze the content of the bag for about 30 seconds to mix the contents and form a slush. The bag will get hot and will remain hot as long as the chemical reaction proceeds. If the bag gets too hot to hold, set it down. Dont get burned! Another option is to wrap the bag in a sock or towel. This is an air-activated hand warmer. Even though most of the air is squeezed out, enough remains in the bag for the oxidation reaction. If you closely examine the contents of the bag after the reaction is complete, youll see the iron has changed into iron oxide or rust. This type of reaction cannot be reversed unless energy is added, so the hand warmer cannot be re-used. If you want to prepare a homemade hand warmer for later use, keep the salt and water separate from the iron and filler until youre ready for the reaction to occur.

Sula in her Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Sula in her Society - Essay Example When describing Sula’s hometown, the author offers the environment as one in which the local community is facing unemployment and the pain from not having work for an extended period of years. Morrison describes the community who watches Sula as being secretively pain-riddled where humor is utilized in an attempt to not have to focus on their poverty. Morrison describes a â€Å"shucking, knee-slapping, wet-eyed laughter that could even describe and explain how they came to be where they were†¦a nigger joke† (Morrison, 4). This describes a community which is well-aware of their social status, however they feel virtually powerless to break free from this lifestyle and utilize humor to gain a sense of control and to cope. Sula is powerfully-different from this lifestyle belief and manages, over her lifetime, to develop quality friendships and find the positive self-identity she is searching for. In Sula’s household, the women use door-slamming and other extreme behaviors such as throwing objects as a means to gain a perception of control over a very chaotic household environment and poverty living standards. Toni Morrison illustrates these wild behaviors in Sula’s household to describe how her upbringing taught Sula that relief from stress and unhappiness in the form of these extreme behaviors were positive methods to gain power over the boundaries caused by their gender, racial and financial statuses. Toni Morrison likely described the environment where Sula was raised as a means to highlight the sociological problems of African-American women during the novel’s time-period. Her hometown maintains many more-affluent white citizens which also impacts the view of the self which less-privileged people experienced from 1920-1960. Morrison is clearly using Sula, and her somewhat unorthodox belief in living life to its fullest, as a representation that an individual does not

3D ProJet 5500x firmy 3D Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

3D ProJet 5500x firmy 3D Systems - Essay Example The speed is double in terms of magnitude compared those of previous printer versions vi. The printouts have varying textures and appearances. The difference in texture and appearance is as a result of the diverse materials that are mixed to make the products. For instance, rubber and plastic materials have different textures and appearances (3D Systems Polska, 2014) i. High speed processing power. The printer produces assemblies efficiently per unit time. As a result, it can combine multi-materials high speed ensuring convenience in continuous and labour intensive industrial activities ii. Previous versions may have been splitting printing operations into different stages. However, the 5500x technology based printer incorporates several operations into one process, an aspect that further enhances efficiency iii. The printer has an attached 5 year warranty that guarantees the user of the quality of the product. Therefore, consumers are contented with the product because they can always forward accruable complains to the concerned manufacturers The printer can produce considerably large printouts by using the advanced 5500x printing technology. Compared to the products of previous printers, the 5500x assemblies are 60 percent larger. Multi-materials are produced by virtue of the multi-jet printing technology that creates quality composite materials of diverse colours and ingredients. The technology is capable of producing appliances with diverse colours and materials. Speed is also an imperative functional component of the printer’s capabilities. Stereo lithography is the basis of operation displayed by most printers. Computer Aided Design uses laser beams to create or print to produce the desired 3D assemblies. The ProJet 5500x uses the same principle of operation. However, the new 3D printing technology is of a higher processing speed when compared to other printers. Its core operating

Classification of the Tea Party Movement Essay Example for Free

Classification of the Tea Party Movement Essay The Tea Party movement appears to be a rather unique entity. There is much confusion as to the exact classification of the Tea Party movement. Are they a political party, an interest group, or a social movement? Even after countless internet searches a definitive answer was seemingly nowhere to be found. There are three possible classifications of the Tea Party movement that will be explored. As well as information on which of the three systems would be the more effective route for the movement to take and why that route would be the most effective. This should paint a clearer picture of the Tea Party movement and their actual classification. The first look will be at whether or not the Tea Party is a political party, an interest group, or a social movement. And then at what would have been the more effective approach and why that approach would have been more effective. The hope is that by the end of this, the reader will have a better idea of the Tea Party movement’s position as a social movement and why a becoming a separate political party would have been their most effective approach. Is the Tea Party movement a political party, an interest group, or a social movement? Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science defines a political party as â€Å"a group of officials or would be officials who are linked with a sizable group of citizens into an organization. A chief objective of this organization is to ensure that its officials attain power and are maintained in power† (Shively, 2012, p. 251). The Tea Party movement clearly has a group of officials that they wanted to place into power. However, with no centralized leadership and little to no attempt to separate from the Republican Party one would be hard-pressed to argue them as a political party. Also, Ron Paul, who is often referred to as the godfather of the Tea Party movement, is currently running for the republican nomination. The republican candidates are frequently campaigning for the votes of the Tea Party voters. Along with, seemingly every news outlet constantly mentioning how the republ icans are fighting for the Tea Party vote the line between the two parties continue to blur. A Washington Post article states, â€Å"at a 2012 presidential forum in New Orleans in June, (Michelle) Bachmann estimated that the tea party consists of 60 percent republicans, 20 percent independents and 20 percent democrats† (Blake, Aaron â€Å"Tea party democrats do exist.† Washington Post. July 6, 2011. Web. March 7, 2012). This tells me that the Tea Party movement is a branch of the Republican Party that has differing views on some major issues, but still identifies themselves as republicans. Therefore, no, by this evidence the Tea Party movement is not a political party. The Tea Party movement, however, also is not an interest group. According to Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science an interest group is an â€Å"organized group of citizens that has one of its goals ensuring that the state follows certain policies† (Shively, 2012, p. 251). Historically groups such as Greenpeace, the National Rifle Association and the Air Force Sergeants As sociation have been classified as interest or â€Å"pressure† groups. These groups use their organization as a means to represent public opinion to government officials. Looking at the definition of interest group one could possibly deduce that the Tea Party movement must be an interest group. Do they want to ensure that the state follows certain policies? Yes. They demand lower taxes, call for the elimination of deficit spending, and insist the government abides by the Constitution and the institution of fiscally conservative policies to eliminate the national debt. Just like with the democratic and republican political parties, the Tea Party movement shares some similarities with interest groups. One could easily consider the Tea Party movement an interest group. Especially if they have read the Encyclopedia definition of interest group, â€Å"also called special interest group or pressure group, any association of individuals or organizations, usually formally organized, that, on the basis of one or more shared concerns, attempts to influence publi c policy in its favor. All interest groups share a desire to affect government policy to benefit themselves or their causes. Their goal could be a policy that exclusively benefits group members or one segment of society (e.g., government subsidies for farmers) or a policy that advances a broader public purpose (e.g., improving air quality). They attempt to achieve their goals by lobbying† (interest group (2012) In Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/290136/interest-group). After reading that definition it seems that the Tea Party movement is an interest group, they do fit the definition extremely well. However, there is one other option. The last possible classification to be explored is the social movement. Does the Tea Party movement fit the mold of a social movement? A social movement is defined as â€Å"loosely organized but sustained campaigns in support of a social goal, typically either the implementation or the prevention of a change in society’s structure or values. Although social movements differ in size, they are all essentially collect ive. That is, they result from the more or less spontaneous coming together of people whose relationships are not defined by rules and procedures but who merely share a common outlook on society† social movement (social movement (2012) In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/551335/social-movement). The Tea Party movement came to be in 2009 and 2010 with distrust in elected officials and wanting to remove them from power. They believe that the government has ignored the constitutional order of America (Shively, 2012, p. 309). To a person who is sparsely active in politics, the Tea Party movement may seem to be spontaneous and out of nowhere. But it could be easily argued that the political activist involved carried their feelings for many years prior to organizing the movement. But to an outsider they may have appeared to burst onto the scene. The Tea Party movement seems to be searching for a change in what they believe to be unconstitut ional actions of the United States government, as well as trying to prevent the invasion of constitutional rights. Earlier, it was stated how one could see classifying the Tea Party movement as an interest group. However, after further research they seem to fit the mold of a social movement slightly more. Since the Tea Party movement is a social movement and not an interest group or political party, it needs to be determined which one would have been the best course of action for the movement to take. The best move the Tea Party movement could make would be to become a separate political party. As a political party they would be able to run on a platform consisting completely of their own views. Why attempt to ride the coattails of the Republican Party? If the views differ enough to rally and callout the current elected officials, regardless of party, then new ones. The new party won’t have to worry about being held back by the differing views of the party of which they chose to attach themselves. If the numbers quoted earlier from Michelle Bachmann are correct (60 percent republicans, 20 percent independents and 20 percent democrats) they should have a rather good chance at winning some elections. Mike Gallagher, a Fox News Contributor, stated in a 2009 interview with Bill O’Reilly that, he’d â€Å"happily trade is republican card for a tea party card, if there was such a thing.† Now, obviously this doesn’t state how many hardline Tea Party voters there are, but it says that they appeal to some members of both major parties as well as the independents. Maybe running separately would give them a better chance of pulling more voters from the other parties and uniting their followers even more. After first comparing the Tea Party movement to interest groups, and then social movements and finally political parties, the evidence showed that they are more of a social movement than the other two. The Encyclopedia definition cited earlier was what led to this conclusion. Although it is strictly an opinion, the Tea Party movement would be better served as a political party. This is mainly because they could focus their time and efforts on a campaign consisting of their views. Would they get my vote? No. But at least they would be able to round up all of their supporters into one basket. Works Cited Encyclopedia Britannica. (2012). Retrieved March 19, 2102, from encyclopediabritannica.com: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/551335/social-movement Encyclopedia Britannica. (2012). Retrieved March 19, 2012, from encyclopediabritannica.com: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/290136/interest-group Shively, W. P. (2012). Power Choice: An Introduction to Political Science. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill.

What Are Ethics? Essay -- Ethics in Decision Making

The word â€Å"ethics† is connected intrinsically with questions of correct conduct within society. The word â€Å"ethics† comes from the Greek â€Å"ethos† meaning â€Å"character† which indicates a concern for virtuous people, reliable character and proper conduct. The term â€Å"morality† is derived from â€Å"mores† or custom — the rules of conduct of a group or society. An initial definition of ethics, then, is the analysis, evaluation, and promotion of correct conduct and/or good character, according to the best available standards. Ethics asks what we should do in some circumstance, or what we should do as participants in some form of activity or profession. Ethics is not limited to the acts of a single person. Ethics is also interested in the correct practices of governments, corporations, professionals and many other groups. To these issues, ethics seeks a reasoned, principled, position. An appeal to existing practice or the command of a powerful leader is not sufficient. To answer such questions in a consistent, reasoned manner may take us far a-field. Some ethical questions will require reflection o...

Brought to Bed by Judith Leavitt

Two Hundred years of American history of childbirth has been fairly, thoroughly and sensitively examined by Leavitt. The main argument she focuses on in the book is the shrewd common commencement of giving birth to a child. This phenomenon is not only a natural event but an important part in the common description of womanhood. In the Past, natural differences have been preserved in the sexual dissection of labor. The communal globe resolutely given to men, being a mother is the center of women’s survival with giving birth to a baby her most appreciated work.The emphasis of Leavitt is on the childbearing centrality to women living her life which guides her to center on the altering personality of giving birth and the relationship a women has to it. The story of Leavitt clarifies from the viewpoint of women giving birth and also of the medical occupation. Cautiously and creatively, she discloses the attractive interaction between the different damage of common and medical chang es have affected the lives of women usually and in particular childbirth.The dialectical association between society and medicine is lit up in the discussion of Leavitt of the entry of a physician into the room where children are born and the means by which women on their own resolute the limit of medical contribution in this customarily area of women. Distant from extension unreceptive losses of their own ecology, for the better part of the era women who gave birth got the emotional power from the normal female’s support systems.In the 1930s childbirth moved permanently to the hospitals, before those women themselves who gave birth were the liveliest causes of alteration in the history of American Childbirth. The preservation of determination of women and traditions of females to form events in their own rooms of childbirth imitated a basic feminist desire. Even though giving birth is the sign of customary womanhood, it was the focal point of the arrangement women constructe d to conquer the restrictions of custom and eventually to extend the sphere of females.The use of Leavitt’s confidential writings of women of America maintain her analysis that women had the control in the child birth room and only gave up this authority to the medical occupation after cautious thought of the options. Leavitt’s argument is realistic that medical experts did not come in without an invitation nor they forced their knowledge, their pincers, asepsis or anesthesia on their miserable patients. The middle and upper class American women would comprise the first line of the fresh medical and social development.Therefore they were active in changing birth of a child from a conventional concern of females into a medical occupation where attention is needed of the experts and eventually the patient is hospitalized. The women who gave birth knew about the options they had with respect to medical intrusion and male attendance. Nothing was forced upon them. The femin ist viewpoint of this book does not mean to bash a doctor. The author points that physicians in America were largely male and they were very alert of their proposition in the mortality rates and maternal morbidity.They struggled to enhance the technique and training of obstetric for the well being of the infant and mother. As a result the occupation has keenly known a better path which is safe and it allows nature to do its work and unwarranted medical intrusion. The result of any intense was often a tragedy for the family. Regardless of the substantial influence that women had for a long time in the room which children were born, by early 1950s they had given their authority and their support system for birth of a child only amongst strangers. As the author challenges the medical side of child birth involved some decisive achievement and losses.By the middle of the 20th century, childbirth was as safe like never before. For the women of America, the individual cost was a isolation from their own experience of childbirth and a callous of the bonds which had conventionally combined them with all the other mothers. Now the pendulum had turned from a customary childbirth to childbirth as a problem of medical experts. The study of Leavitt confirms that physicians and women should divide the liability for the development of childbirth like we are now used too. According to Leavitt, if more changes are made this will allow women to regain the familiarity.The two hundred years covered by Leavitt and her efforts to believe childbirth from the viewpoint of the medical profession as well as women, the book is amazingly logical. As normally the case is the approach loans itself to recurrence of arguments, instances and also quotes but these are small arguments. More significantly, like all the other ground breaking analyses, this one raises a bit of debatable questions. One can be that, given the undividable life of infant and maternal transience, a bit more thought of t he childbirth impact on its final creation would have been valuable.As many women faced the tragedy of losing a child either during or after birth, some would face this tragedy more than once in her life; this seems to be one of the emotional sides of childbirth which requires more expansion. The accessibility of different basis has also prohibited any but transient thought to the familiarity to the women in the working class, who had a lesser choices when giving birth. How can these sorts of women sense the rising violation of medication in the childbirth room? Do they have the same kind of luxury network that upper and middle class women have?Did they eagerly pursue their luckier sister to the hospital? Even though the author cannot be held responsible for setting up limits on her complete study, these questions can make up an exciting follow to her book. However Brought to Bed is an astonishing donation to the women history and also of medicines. It does really tell about the tra nsfer from a self done childbirth to a childbirth done medically. Reference page †¢ Judith Walzer Leavitt (1988) Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950. Publisher: Oxford University Press, USA

Methadone: government’s answer to heroine addiction

Methadone is a pain reliever similar to morphine that belongs to the group of drugs known as opioid. Opioids have chemical structures and actions similar to morphine. Methadone’s effects are longer lasting than that of heroine and are considered to be safe, well-tested medication for treatment of opioid addiction withdrawal and dependence state.Methadone as an opiate has something in common with Heroine. They occupy the same mu opioid receptors in the brain. Methadone is a synthetic drug, long-acting opioid whose effects last for 24 hours. It was proven to mimic heroine’s action in the brain without necessarily occupying all the mu opioid receptors. It therefore leaves enough of these receptors free to perform their specific roles and is the reason why methadone patients do not experience high. Methadone reduces the cravings with heroine and blocks the high from heroine use.Benefits of MethadoneMethadone has its own cost benefit by which a patient will only incur $13 pe r day because of its duration of action and very low cost (ONDCP 2000). This is taken a better and cost effective alternative to rehabilitation and incarceration. Withdrawal is much slower than that of heroine. The government finds it much possible to maintain an addict on methadone without undesirable harsh side effects. Methadone detox is only effective for addicts of heroine, morphine, and opioid drugs. Patients may require continuous treatment over a period of long years. Withdrawal symptoms may be regulated by gradual reduction of dosage medication.The truth about MethadoneMethadone is a synthetic drug which is habit forming. Methadone brings about a biochemical balance in the body but the patient remains physically dependent on the opioid. Regular usage develops certain tolerance. Methadones do not cure heroine addiction it only sustain addicts habit by its long-lasting effect characteristics. Methadone has this side effect that may impair thinking and reactions since it still is a form of opioid synthetic drug. The only success that can be attributed to Methadone is its ability to harm some mu opioid receptors while leaving others free to function. But what if the occupied receptors cannot accommodate Methadone anymore? Will it result to giving more harm by affecting the free receptors?The dos and don’ts of Methadone usageMethadone shall be used solely with no other drug combinations. The patient must avoid drugs that contain narcotics that may induce one to get drowsy or sleepy like cough, cold or pain relievers, muscle relaxants, medicine for seizures, depression or anxiety.Allergic reactions are known to be difficulty in breathing and swelling of the face, lips, tongue, or throat. Serious side effects are known to include hallucinations or confusions, swelling of ankles or feet, urinating less than usual, chest pains, and feeling light headed or fainting.Overdose symptoms were observed to be shallow or decreased breathing, slow heart rate, sma ll pupils, cold clammy skin and coma or even death.Methadone administrationThe drug can be taken as a liquid or as a tablet for oral administration. The correct dosage shall be measured with a marked liquid measuring spoon or medicine cup. It can be also administered through injections.ConclusionsI do not believe that government has been helping its people by the introduction of methadone. Tolerance means the possibility of a tolerant person to function normally with a dose that may prove fatal to a non tolerant person. It does not treat nor cure the addiction but only sustain the habit economically for 24 hours because of its long-lasting effect. Methadone can proved fatal when the patient is out on the streets and may not be known to be using it. When plagued with cough and colds, there is a very big possibility that his mind and control defenses will go lax and buy over the counter drugs to treat the illness which is a big NO for this kind of treatment.The way I see it, it is the highway to free addiction and free fall to individual fatality. The free fall may not be on its effect as a treatment but purely on its established harmful effects when combined with other drugs that may be bought over the counter for relief of mild ailments. The harm is laxity and ignorance of the person being held responsible for his own treatment. Methadone may increase the effects of these other drugs and make drowsiness and dizziness even worse. The danger is from the aspects of over dose and side effects.Methadone only reduces cost for treatment some aspects of drug addiction. It also reduces crime and violence but do not ultimately reduce the misuse of this drug and of the other drugs. We don’t hold the thoughts and the hearts of our patients. They have a different meaning for responsibility and laxity of control. Patients do not actually follow what you teach. It has been established that their sense of responsibility and control are not outstanding by the addiction that they were in. The treatment can serve as a freeway to the highway of unknown, uncontrollable, fearsome consequences.[1] What will become of this nation then?I do not mean harm with the theory that the government may find relief in the patient having to commit government assisted unwanted induced suicide. How will the government justify the danger of the treatment? How will they be able to justify giving aids to third world countries when they are limiting financial aids to their citizens themselves? I cannot see the reason of helping first other people then trying to limit own cost of rehabilitation of drug addiction centers and people with mental illness.How can a group of senators and scientist fail to underestimate and assess the relation between over dose and the patient’s sense of responsibility? I absolutely will not deregulate and increase methadone availability. There is already an array of harmful drugs over the counters that were regulated, we cannot add more t o these dangers. I see human sacrifice and cost effective governmental measures that were not helping to the health of these people. It is frantically pushing them to their ends. We cannot justify harm with cost effectiveness.We need to STOP methadone treatment and be back on the basics of rehabilitation strategy. Relapse and withdrawal will never be a problem if we continue to clean our body, our environment, and our policy. If we find it hard to change policies, then we need to push the change on the persons that made it to their seats so we can effect proper changes.ReferencesFinn, S. & Tuckwiller, T. (2006, June 4). The killer cure: Deaths tied to methadone escalate4across State, Nation. The Charlestone Gazette. Retrieved May 21, 2007 from thewebsite of Medical Assisted Treatment Website: http://www.medicalassistedtreatment.org/475719/486926.html?*session*id*key*=*session*id*val*ONDCP. (2000). Methadone April 2000. Retrieved May 21, 2007 from the website of ONDCP.Websites: http: //www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/methadone/index.html[1]â€Å"Methadone, once given mostly to heroin addicts to ease their cravings is being prescribed now by more doctors to treat pain.  Ã‚  Insurance companies favor it because it is cheap and effective. But methadone helped to kill three times as many Americans in 2003 as it did in 1999, death certificates reveal, and medical examiners blame it for more overdose deaths than any other narcotic drug except cocaine. This previously unpublished information comes from an analysis of death certificates requested by the Gazette-Mail and conducted by the National Vital Statistics System, part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Center for Health Statistics. West Virginia led the nation in accidental overdose deaths blamed on methadone in 2003, with a death rate four times higher than the national average, the data shows. It was followed by Kentucky, North Carolina, Maine and New Hampsh ire. Methadone contributed to 2,992 deaths nationwide in 2003, up from 790 four years earlier, according to the data. That’s more deaths in one year than the U.S. military has suffered during the conflict in Iraq.   Medical examiners ruled 82 percent of those deaths accidental.† (Finn & Tuckwiller 2006)

Sexual Education in Schools Essays

Sexual Education in Schools Essays Sexual Education in Schools Essay Sexual Education in Schools Essay Sexual instruction ( sex erectile dysfunction ) in public schools has long been a controversial and debated subject in society. There are several inquiries when it comes to nearing sex erectile dysfunction in schools. These inquiries include: appropriate age for presenting sex erectile dysfunction ; should arouse ed be compulsory or optional ; and whether sex erectile dysfunction plans should be comprehensive or abstinence-based. Sexual activity erectile dysfunction is a necessary topic to learn in schools. It should be appropriate to the class degree and taught in a knowing, indifferent mode. Comprehensive sex erectile dysfunction should include learning pupils about abstention, bar techniques, and should put an accent on assisting pupils to get decision-making accomplishments when it comes to sexual activity. Sexual activity erectile dysfunction can be a really utile and efficient tool for immature pupils when it comes to doing the determination that is best for them. It is an unfo rtunate tendency that non all immature striplings have a safe topographic point to turn to for effectual sexual information. Supplying sex erectile dysfunction in schools gives all pupils an equal chance to acquire information about sex and all the facets that come with it. Age-Appropriate Sex Ed Sexual activity instruction should get down in early striplings or Oklahoman, perchance get downing in 5th or 6th class. Sex instruction that works starts early, before immature people reach pubescence, and before they have developed established forms of behaviour ( Forrest A ; Kannabus, 2009, pg 3 ) . If a kid does nt acquire introduced to arouse erectile dysfunction until age 16, but starts holding sex at age 14 ; so it s possible they did nt larn anything about abstention and STD or gestation bar prior to their sexual activity. At which point it may be harder to learn them new behaviours refering sexual activity. In 2005, 6.2 per centum of high school pupils reported holding engaged in sexual intercourse before age 13 ( Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System ( YRBS ) , 2007, n.p. ) . While 6.2 may look like a little per centum ; 45.5 % of immature adult females and 45.7 % of immature work forces claim to hold had sexual intercourse between the ages of 15 and 19. Harmonizing to these statistics, it would look that some sex erectile dysfunction would be appropriate at least anterior to or at age 12. It is hard to cognize at what age sex erectile dysfunction should be administered. It all depends on the physical, emotional, and mental development of the kid. Some argue that presenting sex erectile dysfunction at such a immature age will promote immature childs to experiment and move on their wonder. However, Harmonizing to 48 surveies of comprehensive sex and STD/HIV instruction plans in US schools ; there was found to be strong grounds that such plans did non increase sexual activity. Some of them reduced sexual activity, or increased rates of rubber usage or other preventives, or both ( Forrest A ; Kannabus, 2009 ) . It appears to be apparent that supplying sexual instruction at a younger age, such as 5th or 6th class, is non merely necessary but appropriate as good. Compulsory V. Optional Sex Ed Because all pupils deserve the chance to hold equal entree to arouse erectile dysfunction ; it should be mandated by all schools to learn comprehensive sexual instruction, with the option for parents choosing their kids out of category. During interviews conducted with parents of school aged kids, by the writer of this paper ; it was found that all the parents besides thought sex erectile dysfunction should be compulsory for schools to learn sex erectile dysfunction, and mandatary for schools to offer parents the pick of choosing their kids out of the plans. The parents besides thought it necessary for schools to let parents to reexamine the information that would be taught to pupils prior to their kids taking the class, this would give them the chance to draw their kids out of the class. Harmonizing to the Guttmacher Institute ( 2009 ) , 21 provinces and the District of Columbia mandate that public schools teach sex instruction ( highlight 1 ) . While 37 provinces require school t erritories to let parental engagement in sex erectile dysfunction, merely 3 provinces require parental consent for their kid to take part in sex erectile dysfunction, and 35 provinces permit parents to choose their kids out of sex erectile dysfunction ( Guttmacher Institute, 2009, highlight 3 ) . Merely 4 % of junior high pupils parents and 6 % of high school pupil parents believe that sex instruction should non be taught in schools. Many school territories do nevertheless do exclusions for pupils that can non take part due to spiritual beliefs and imposts ( Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States ( SIECUS ) , 2007, n.d. ) . Program Effectiveness Even though at that place seems to be small argument about the appropriate age to present sex erectile dysfunction and whether it should be compulsory or optional ; there is a really large argument about the effectivity of the two chief plans being taught in public schools. These plans include comprehensive sexual instruction and abstinence-only plans, both of which have protagonists and oppositions. Many abstinence-until-marriage or abstinence-based plans taught in schools are funded by the federal authorities. Billions of dollars have been poured into these plans, yet they have non been proven to be every bit effectual as comprehensive plans nor have they shown a positive alteration in immature pupils sexual activities ( No More Money, 2008 ) . Abstinence-only plans place an accent on abstention from all sexual behaviours as a agency to bar of gestation and STD s. These plans cover minimum information about preventives and STD bar. If discussed at all, these plans merely discuss failure rates ( Community Action Kit, 2008 ) . While many advocates of abstinence-only plans argue that the plan is the lone manner for pupils to be 100 % protected, oppositions would reason that the plans do nt provide adequate cognition to pupils about other signifiers of protection and preventive steps. Students are more likely to prosecute in unprotected sexual activities when they have non been taught any information about bar. Many abstinence-only plans besides teach pupils about exerting self-denial ( No More Money, 2008 ) . Harmonizing to Family Accountability Communicating Teen Sexuality ( FACTS Handbook ) ( 2000 ) , Students who do non take to exert self-denial to stay abstentious are non likely to exert self-denial in the usage of a prop hylactic device ( p. 50 ) . However, this is non a known fact since contraceptive method as a preventive device is non taught in abstinent-only plans. Abstinent-only plans do non fix pupils for the possibility that they may non be able to exert self-denial. Educational Psychology by John W. Santrock high spots stripling thought, on page 314. Santrock notes that in the heat of the minute, striplings emotions may particularly overpower their decision-making ability . In the heat of the minute, a pupil who has nt been taught about contraceptive method or rubber likely wo nt do the right determination. However, an stripling who has been supplied with equal information about rubbers and contraceptive method might hold already considered the effects before-hand, during a minute non aroused by emotion. Having the cognition to do the right determination refering protection may assist the immature pupil to do a better pick during an emotionally aroused province. The grounds and research clearly shows that abstinence-only plans do non forestall adolescent gestations or the oncoming of vaginal intercourse ( Kohler, 2008 ) . Comprehensive sexual instruction ( CSE ) is an indifferent attack to arouse erectile dysfunction. CSE Teachs and develops decision-making accomplishments in pupils about abstention, preventives, STD bar, rubber usage, adolescent gestation, human development and generative systems and relationships ( Community Action Kit, 2008, pgId 886 ) . Many parents argued that sexual instruction plans did non concentrate plenty on learning pupils responsible behaviour and self-pride associated with doing determinations about sex. CSE provides that pupils be taught about relationships and interpersonal accomplishments. This plan besides highlights the development of pupils attitudes towards their values and beliefs about sex and exerting duty sing sexual relationships ( Community Action Kit, 2008, pgId 888 ) . Even though these plans have been proven to detain the oncoming of intercourse ; cut down the frequence of intercourse and the figure of sexual spouses ; and increase rubber or preventive usage ( Community Action Kit, 2008, pgId887 ) ; merely 15 provinces require that sex instruction plans cover contraceptive method ( Guttmacher Institution, 2009, highlight 1.2 ) . Even with its proved effectivity and success rate, CSE is non being taught in adequate schools to make its max potency at cut downing immature pupils hazardous behaviour refering sexual activities. Some critics argue that CSE plans increase sexual activity due merely to the pupils consciousness of sexual information. While CSE may non chiefly forestall sexual intercourse it is 50 % more likely to forestall adolescent gestations than abstinence-only plans. It is besides shown to marginally cut down studies of vaginal intercourse among immature pupils ( Kohler, 2008 ) . CSE allows pupils to continually construct upon development and learned accomplishments. It besides focuses on assisting pupils to keep these accomplishments in memory, believing and decision-making procedures. For CSE to be successful, pedagogues have to be dedicated in supplying pupils with indifferent and effectual sexual cognition and information. There are many immature striplings in society s communities that are merely non provided with the equal cognition about sex erectile dysfunction necessary to do picks and determinations that are best for themselves and their hereafters. With the right tools and moti ve instructors and pedagogues could be really successful at fixing pupils for existent life sexual brushs. Parents in America strongly back up a broad comprehensiveness of subjects being taught as a portion of sex instruction, and there is wide public support every bit good. 93 % of junior high parents and 91 % of high school parents back up sex instruction as a portion of school course of study. 71 % up to 100 % of junior high and high school parents back up subjects such as HIV/AIDS, STD bar, adolescent gestation, birth control, rubber usage, and sexual orientation as appropriate subjects to discourse in sexual instruction plans ( SIECUS, 2007 ) . Even with these high Numberss ; it s dismaying to cognize that many provinces merely do nt necessitate it. Many more provinces need to necessitate that comprehensive sex instruction be offered in all schools, instead than no sex instruction or abstinence-only plans. They need to be compulsory plans with the option of opt outs. Programs should get down at age-appropriate times such as 5th-6th class, and each class degree provided with age-appropriate stuff to increase in strength in higher class degrees. Merely when this attack is taken will sexual instruction in schools see max possible and effectual consequences. Effective consequences that merely may alter those 6 % of opposing parents heads.

A Raisin in the Sun Essay -- Character Analysis, Walter

Big Walter had lots of values for his race and worked very hard for those values to ensure happiness for his family. The American dream was a dim reality because of the harsh working conditions of Chicago blacks in the 1920’s (M’baye 175). This is how mama sees Big Walter, as a courageous man who fought all his life to secure a happy future for his family. As M’baye states, â€Å"Big Walter’s life was a constant struggle against a personal sorrow and a hostile economic and social world that discriminated against him† (175). Big Walter has the most dignity for his family and his actual dream is the happiness of his family. Mama always mentions Big Walter in the story every time Walter or Beneatha does something that she thinks is wrong. Mama says that Big Walter hated domestic jobs and that farming and sick people—then go be a nurse like other women—or just get married and be quiet† (Hansberry 38). The value of every dream is crucial to every member of the Younger family because of the effect it has them, but it is the family dream to own a house that hold them together. At the end of the story, Mama convinced Walter that buying the house was important for the family because the thought of living in the apartment for the rest of their lives was unbearable. Big Walter had to fight and was struggling to achieve his dream of buying a house, which ended up becoming the families dream. Walter’s dream interfered with Beneatha’s dream, and the families dream. This had a major impact on everyone’s life, especially after Walter lost the money. In the end, the Younger family was all happy about Walter’s decision. That is the Younger family American dream.

Health Care IT Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Health Care IT Systems - Essay Example 1. The healthcare organization should improve in their billing system by implementing IT. It will aid them to minimize the errors during a transaction between hospitals and patients. Even, the staffs of the healthcare organization can easily maintain the records of their patient. It will minimize the data redundancy. 2. The medical records should be in electronic form, so the patients and physicians can monitors the records over the internet and can consult with other physicians and medical staffs. It will aid them to track the medical records of their patient. Even, electronic medical records save the time of both parties. The patient can easily consult with their desire doctor with help of electronic medical records and the doctor can easily track down the past medical records of the patient.IT in healthcare center will save a lot of time for the physicians and staffs. This will reduce the miscommunication among the doctors and medical staffs. It will enhance the workflow of health care center and reduces the extra workforces, like a mediator between a doctor and a patient regarding billing process or medical records. Information Technology will create a better quality of work and reduce the wastages of money. It will save a lot of time to maintaining and creating medical records and billing system. The loss of medical records of any patient is very critical and unwanted situation in the health care center. A loss of medical records, the physicians, and medical staffs have to bear a lot of troubles.

Zulu African Tribe views on death and afterlife Term Paper

Zulu African Tribe views on death and afterlife - Term Paper Example It is believed that in the 16th century the Zulu migrated and settled in the south of the African continent. This paper is to examine the practices, customs, belief and views of the Zulu, a tribe found in South Africa regarding death and the afterlife. The Zulu tribe views on death and the afterlife The Zulu belief in gods, for instance, Inkosi Yezulu means ‘Chief of the Sky’. This is a male god of the sky and is considered as the maker of all humans (Magesa, 187). However, despite him being the maker of everything, he is associated with lightening, thunder and rain clouds. This male god has a twin god called mother earth (Krige 46). The Zulu as well believe people who die go to the twin god. The Zulu also identify their ancestral spirits by names like amalozi, amathonga and amakhosi. This ancestral spirits are souls of the recently dead people and are normally considered effective contacts between the Zulu and their gods and therefore responsible for positive, construct ive and creative results among the Zulu. At the same time these ancestral spirits can also work for the ill of the tribe (Krige, 47). For this reason the Zulu hold these ancestors in high esteem so as to bring good will to the region. Umsamo is a particular place identified in the Zulu hut of Zulu chiefs’ jurisdiction where religious action is done.... Besides, their bodies are quietly unceremoniously buried. Ceremonies and rituals associated with death and the afterlife Immediately after death, one is considered to be in an "in-between" region which is some kind of limbo. The Zulu believe that the dead person stays in this ‘in-between’ situation for a period that could be between one month and a year. However, being in this limbo position is necessitated by three things. One of the reasons for this is that after a person’s death, the village’s chief herbalist will be devoted with finding out the cause of the departed’s death. These search periods will last for about one month, besides; if the person was not married he would be in limbo for that period of time until the cause of his demise is traced. In the event that he was married, the widow would mourn for a period of twelve months since the death occurred. A ritual is carried out which involves taking of medicine and praying to prior to beseech ing the current Chief to perform what is known as Ukubuyisa Idlozi. This is normally done as an initiation to "bring home the ancestor"(Lawson 32). They believe that this act makes it possible for the recently deceased person to join his ancestors in the Umsamo. Once the deceased person has been brought to the Umsamo, his position in this place will determine where he goes after here. In the event that a chief dies, the Zulu believe that his spirit will remain within the living world so as to oversee the happenings his homestead even in death. Except for Chiefs, it is believed that all those who die go to the underworld, which is located deep inside mother earth (Tempels 38). Ethical responsibilities and obligations to achieve the afterlife When a family member dies, the remaining family

Cost method november Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cost method november - Essay Example It is crucial for managers to comprehend the merits and demerits of the two systems to satisfy the needs of their business operations. The budget presented entails schedules that raise various concerns leading to the recommendation that the company should switch to the activity-based costing system of accounting. The first concern is the quarterly budget that in my opinion requires further subdivision to generate quarters. Mainly, cycling takes place in temperate weather conditions. Buying materials for bicycle production for the start of sales hikes demand therefore, requires the producer to incur a quarter before the demand. Another concern regards accounts that remain uncollectable. The master budget for the company is not specific it its cash budget line. It closely refers to the uncollectable receivables. Variable factors in this context emanate from economic features among them limited sponsorship and thus resulting in wrong accounts (Gazely & Lambert, 2006). From the budget, the company is setting aside a budget for 140 bikes inclusive of labour costs. It is appropriate to cut down on the level of production of extra parts in the inventory. The viability of any business can be measured by how the company effectively utilizes its resources while plummeting unnecessary costs hence Competition Bikes Inc. should strive to avert extra discretionary costs. The method of distributing manufacturing overhead by activity-based costing (ABC) to products is efficient compared to the traditional method of costing. Precisely, activity-based costing assigns the right percentage of resources to particular products. While monitoring and allocating organizational costs to products and objects, activity-based costing remains a more sophisticated and logical method as opposed to the traditional costing system (Bragg, 2001). It is possible to distribute

How Animation Affects Children Film Studies Essay

How Animation Affects Children Film Studies Essay In today advancement of technology, television is a big part in the role of delivering information to the society. The influence of this form of media has no exception to children. Nowadays, children are growing up with television. They learn from television and trying to make sense of this system of communication. To understand what they are learning from it, the use of television and how they absorb the information are important areas to learn further about this issue. Animation as a part of television programs plays an important role to children development since animation often related to children as its target audiences. The use of cognitive skills and how they relate to many aspects inside the animation such as narrative, character, and many more influence what knowledge and skills that they acquire from watching animation. It influences their cognitive and social development with things that they are not obtained from their parents and teachers at school. This issue raises que stions such as what can children learn from watching animation, or how children with different ages and cultures make sense of it in their development process. Chapter 1: Children Learning Process 1.1 Children Cognitive Development Before talking further about content of animation that influences children learning process, it is important to study the learning process of the children itself. Jean Piaget theory about cognitive development is a good first step to understand how children get their knowledge, construct it and use it. According to Piaget, a newborn baby enters the world without basic cognitive skills and through the development as a child, he consistently trying to adapt the world around him. Constructing such an understanding is basically what cognitive development is all about. Piaget defines it as the properties of intelligence that explains why certain behaviours happened. According to Piaget there are three components that exist in cognitive development, which are function, content, and structure. Function in this case refers to broad characteristics of intellectual activity; on the other hand, content refers to what do children know, which is about raw behavioural data that is observable. In between function and content, Piaget mentioned about the existence of cognitive structure, which is the properties of intelligence that causing particular behaviours to occurs. When a child watching animation, they use their existing knowledge to make sense of the animation that they are watching, they are trying to understand what is happening in front of their eyes at the moment. Different age group has different way of seeing and perceived things because cognitive structure keep evolving as a human grow up and obtaining information through their experiences. To explore further about the age group of children and what can they absorb during those periods of time, Piaget further divided cognitive development process into four stages: Sensory-motor stage / Infancy (0-2 years) In this stage of development, a child is trying many things that he can feel, taste, see, smell, and hear. Through this repetitive process, he starts to build images in his brain about his surroundings. He is learning to identify things based on the interaction between the object and his five senses. He slowly learns about the existence of an object and learning to use symbolic abilities such as language. At this stage, he is still learning about object permanence. He is still unaware about the existence of an object when it is out of his sight, for example is a child who has his candy taken away from him and simply hide it will make him think that the candy is gone therefore he started crying. Pre-operational stage / toddler and early childhood (2-7 years) This stage of development a child started to learn to use symbolic images to define things and developing language ability. This is the stage where a child started to imitate other people behaviour while still having an egocentric thought. He needs a concrete physical situation to understand what is going on around him as he is not able to conceptualize abstractly in his brain. At this stage, a child is able to define an object based on one characteristic, for example is how a child at this stage will group his toys based on a type of the toys (grouping a car toys regardless of the colour of the toy or the size of it) or based on colour (grouping all red toys regardless the shape of them). Concrete-operational period (7-11 years) At this stage, a child start to lose their egocentric thought. He is able to conceptualize things and formed his logic based on his experiences to grasp the situation around him. He is able to use logic appropriately to manipulate symbols related to concrete objects, classifies objects based on their features and dimensions, and able to do abstract problem solving based on their concrete experiences. Formal-operational period (11-15 years) This last stage involves a child ability to use abstract thinking rather than concrete experiences. He is able to explain his problem solving process, able to use logical reasoning, and start to thinking about his future. Another important analysis done by Piaget is the analysis of how well a child performs on different task between each stage. These tasks analysis involves four areas of study, which are: Hidden Object This area involves object permanence as it was mentioned at the sensory-motor stage before. The term object that Piaget mentioned in his theory refers to things that an individual believed that it exist in this world and able to interact with. At the first stage, which is sensory-motor stage, an infant do not see an object as something that is exist in this world, he only perceived it as a thing that drives his reflexive action. Piaget made an experiment by putting a cloth over a toy which made the child not interested anymore to the object that being covered. A child will slowly grasp the concept of object permanence after leaving the sensory-motor stage. Conservation Regardless the space that objects stayed, the quantity of it will stay the same. This is what Piaget means by conservation in this matter. He made an experiment by presenting water inside containers to a child. He poured water into two containers with the same size and asked the child which one has more water and the child think that they have the same amount of water. When Piaget take one container and poured the water inside into a different container that is thinner and taller and presented it again to the child, the child said that the thinner and taller containers have more water compared to the one before. This example shows that a child still do not have the logic to think about the volume of an object and deceived by the physical appearance of it. As a child grow up, his logic of conservation will be developed until age 11-12 when he reached the peak of concrete operational-period, when he is able to define volume in an object. Transitive Inference Also known as Seriation, Transitive Inference is the skill to logically arrange things based on particular criteria. In this case, Piaget made an experiment by presenting wooden sticks with different length to a child and asked him to arrange them. In the end, the child was not able to arrange them based on the height of each stick and just put them randomly next to each other. Transitive Inference will evolve as a child Conservation skill evolving. By grasping the understanding of each measurement unit, a child will form logic of Transitive Inference in his head as well. Balance-Scale Task Balance scale task involves systematic understanding of physics related area. For this area of study, Piaget made an experiment by placing a bar on top of a small object and adding different weight for each end of the bar. Without considering that the length between the small object and two weights are different, child at pre-operational stage said that the side with more weight will go down. Child at concrete-operational stage struggled to use his logic to combine the two elements, distance and weight. Child at formal-operational period has the logic to decide which side will go down. Piaget uses these four areas of study to explain further about his stages of childs cognitive development. He presented relevant experiments for each category to give a clear example of childs learning process at different stages. 1.2 Knowledge Representation Children and adults have a different way of seeing things. Compared to adults who see things more abstractly and conceptually, the way children seeing things are more imaginary. If both adult and children were given a brown coloured dog, different image representation will be formed in their mind. If adults will try to remember why the dog is brown by thinking what breed is the dog, children will simply remember it as a dog with brown colour. After they fully grasp the idea of object permanence when they entering pre-operational stage, they can form a mental representation inside their mind. Arietta Slade in her book Children at Play defines mental representation as ..an ability with enormous adaptive value. Out of sight no longer means out of mind, an achievement that involves a new capacity for organized psychological experiences. (1994, pp.6) She took an example of a mother and her child by saying that the mental representation of a mother can be stored in the childs mind and during the mother absent, the child will use his mental representation to take out the memory of his mothers basic visual appearance, such as the voice, the smell, or the touch. Piaget in his book defines mental representation as an ability to hold an image in a childs mind for a period beyond the immediate experience. Piaget mentioned that a child is able to form a mental representation after a year and a half during sensory-motor stage. At the later stage, which is pre-operational stage, a child takes the mental representation one step further and started to use symbols as a representation of his knowledge. A symbol can take a form of picture, written word, or spoken word. Due to their egocentric thought a child may use symbols as a representation only for their point of view. For example is an experiment called three mountain task done by Piaget and Barbel Inhelder to study the perspective view of a child. The experiment was done by laying down three models of a mountains and a child facing a direction of those models. On the other side, a doll was placed with a different point of view at those models. Then Piaget asked the child to describe the overlappi ng of those models from the dolls perspective. The existence of egocentrism was proven when a child at pre-operational period cannot differentiate their view and the doll view. At the concrete operational period, children take their symbol representation ability one step above from just using symbols as a representation, to be able to manipulate symbols with their logic. They are not seeing things only from their perspective anymore, but they still need a concrete situation to be able to use their logic to manipulate the symbol. Lastly, when they enter formal-operational stage, concrete situation is no longer needed to put logic to manipulate a symbol. They can think logically to adapt in a abstract situation. By exploring further about how children evolved in their knowledge representation as they grow up, one should have a better understanding of how they perceived things around them. Chapter 2: Children and Animation 2.1 Animation and Archetypes Before talking about archetypes in animation, it is important to get an understanding about the basic of animation. According to Paul Wells in his book Understanding Animation, animation derived from the latin verb, animare, which means to give life to and he further said that ..within the context of the animated film, this largely means the artificial creation of the illusion of movement in inanimate lines and forms. (1998, pp.10) Animation provides us with things that cannot be achieved in real life as Paul Wells further explained in his book, Animation can defy the laws of gravity, challenge our perceived view of space and time, and endow lifeless things with dynamic and vibrant properties. (1998, pp.11) Therefore, animation provides us with imagination that we cannot get from live action movie. Imagination is an important aspect in children development. When children watch an animation, they will relate themselves with the character in the animation. By putting themselves in the shoes of one of the character in the animation, their personalities are being influenced by the archetype of the character in the story. Psychologist Carl Gustave Jung defines archetypes as a result of collective unconscious, which he defines as a knowledge we are all born with, yet we are not conscious of it. Jung divided archetypes into four main forms, which are: The Shadow: The Shadow, embodies chaos and wildness of character, It is an archetype that reflects deeper elements of our mind. The Anima (male)/Animus (female): The Anima/Animus is the route of communication with collective unconscious. It represents our true self, without the mask that we use everyday. The Self: The Self is a process where all aspects are brought together as one. It unifies conscious and unconscious. Joseph Campbell in his book The Hero with a Thousand Faces defines seven archetypes in storytelling: Hero: The Hero is basically the protagonist or main character. His journey is a path from the ego, often consist of seperation from his family to a new places before going back to the hometown. Mentor: The Mentor is a character who trains the hero, represents wise quality within us Threshold Guardian: The Threshold Guardian is the heros first obstacle in his journey. Its role is to test the worthiness of the hero to start a journey. Herald: The Herald is not necessarily to be a person. Its role is to delivers a challenge to the hero to begin his journey. Shapeshifter: Often is the opposite sex of the hero, The Shapeshifters role is to delivers suspense to the story by questioning beliefs and assumptions. Shadow: The Shadow often take a role as an antagonist in the story, representing things we do not like that we want to eliminate. Trickster: The Trickster provides comedy to the story to balance its tension. The trickster often is a companion of the hero. 2.2 Narrative in Animation According to dictionary, narrative has a meaning of a story or account of events, experiences, or the like, whether true or fictitious. According to Seymour Chatman in his book Story and Discourse, Narratives are communications, thus easily envisaged as the movement of arrows from left to right, from author to audience. (1978, pp.71) So, it can be said that narrative is a form of communication from the author as a guide to the audience. Chatman tried to draw connections between narrative and how it affecting the audience by breaking down the elements in the narrative. Chatman made an analysis of narrative by detailing the clear distinction between story and discourse. Defining story and discourse is a matter of asking what and how. Story is what the animation trying to communicate, which is the content of the animation, and discourse is how the animation being communicated, which is the form of the animation. Chatman further divides story into two parts which are events and existents. Events exist because there are existents, and vice versa. Events are things that happened in the story and existents are the one who make it happen. Regarding of events, Chatman mention about naturalizing in story which is a way in which audiences come to recognize and interpret convention (1978, pp.49) An author often use Naturalizing to make the audience have a better understanding of what is happening in the event of a story. For example is when a character open and read his diary or a letter, there is background voice that highlighting what is written in it. By connecting the image and the voice, it gives the audience better understanding about that particular event in the story. While Events deal with time in the narrative, on the other hand, existents deal with space. Existents contain settings and characters in the narrative. According to Chatman, setting is the place or collection of objects in movie space that interacting in some way with the character. 2.3 Character in Animation According to Aristotle, characters in narratives have the second place in importance. It exists to fulfill the role that the event requires him or her to perform. This kind of character usually has a very specific trait assigned to them in the story. The meaning of traits according to dictionary is a distinguishing characteristic or quality, especially of ones personal nature. According to Chatman, traits are actions that becoming the label of the character in the story. According to him, character can have more than 1 trait which will creates self conflict in the story; therefore bring out the uniqueness to the character. Chatman definition of character in the narrative can be associated with Carl Jungs archetypes. Carl Jung describes archetypes as repeating patterns of thoughts and actions that re-appear again and again across people. Jung main archetypes are not in a way that each person may be classified as one, but rather we have all the basic archetypes inside us, which is the shadow that embodies chaos and wildness of character, the anima/animus which represents our true self, and the self where all aspects are brought together as one. An example of Jungs archetype can be seen in Lotso, the pink teddy bear from Toy Story 3. He has the anima archetypes at the beginning of the movie when he guiding the hero in his journey. Then as the movie progress, he started to show the shadow archetypes inside of him. 2.4 What Can Children Learn from Animation In their first year, a child is unable to grasp the concept and narrative of the animation that he watches. According to Jean Ann Wright in her book Animation Writing and Development, while an infant still unable to sits by themselves, they enjoying watching television just by paying attention to the changing patterns of light colours and sounds. Therefore, at this sensory-motor stage, animation for them is just the same as other forms of entertainment as they just paying attention to the basic forms, movement and colours. Their lacking of object permanence ability not allows them to understand the existence of a character in the movie. As they move to different stages, they start to explore the world around them. They begin to learn about language and symbols as a representation of actions. They will start to interact with things that they watch until finally they are able to grasp the content of the animation that they watch. As they enter the pre-operational stage, narratives and characters in animation start to have influences on their development. Although they still see things very literally, they start to pay attention at the setting of the event, and as they developing language ability, they will start to imitate the movement and dialog of the character in the animation, although they still unaware of the traits that the particular character possess. They are still relating the character in the animation to them limited to what is literally shown in the movie. Their egocentric thought allows them to relate at the character in the animation in a very narrow point of view. During the Concrete operational stage, a child is now able to relate the characteristic of the character to him to an extent of what a character is being portrayed in the animation. Without his egocentric thought he is able to see the character from other point of view. For example if he watches a Aladdin, he is not only seeing Jasmine as a beautiful princess but also taking the point of view of Aladdin as a princess that want to be free and his lover. But he still need a concrete situation in the movie to help him understand the character from other point of view. And lastly during the formal operational stage, a child is now able to fully relate himself to the character in the animation. He also begins to grasp the concept and morale behind it rather than using an image representation to relate to the character. He is now able to relate himself to the character abstractly using his logic. He is now able to think what possibilities that the character might behave in the movie even i f it is not shown in any scene. Animation has the most impact at this stage, where a child can relate himself to many things from the character other than what the animation showed in the narrative. He will memorize lots of symbols regarding his surroundings. Lets take an example of how a child in formal-operational period can relate himself to violence aspect in animation. Does watching too much violence in animation will leads a child into a violent teenager? For example, a child at this stage will see a gun as a symbol of killing. But at the same time it does not necessarily cause a child to act more violently. As a gun can also symbolize justice where in the movie a hero use it to shoot the villain. It can promote a view that violence is common in everyday life, which will make them think that the world around them is a mean and dangerous place. Therefore it will create fears in their minds. Or it can create the opposite effect that having a gun will make a child feel safe. The ability of abstract thinking that a child at formal-operational period possessed will make a child have a different point of view compared to others. Conclusion By studying children learning process and how they can relate to the narrative and character in animation, it can be said that animation affects children differently according to their cognitive development level. At pre-operational and concrete-operational period, a child started to relate himself to the character in the animation limited to what is being showed in the animation. At formal-operational period, a child is no longer use image representation as much as before and able to fully relate himself to the character in the animation.